Journal Description
Actuators
Actuators
is an international, peer-reviewed, open access journal on the science and technology of actuators and control systems published monthly online by MDPI.
- Open Access— free for readers, with article processing charges (APC) paid by authors or their institutions.
- High Visibility: indexed within Scopus, SCIE (Web of Science), Inspec, and other databases.
- Journal Rank: JCR - Q2 (Engineering, Mechanical) / CiteScore - Q2 (Control and Optimization)
- Rapid Publication: manuscripts are peer-reviewed and a first decision is provided to authors approximately 14.7 days after submission; acceptance to publication is undertaken in 2.6 days (median values for papers published in this journal in the first half of 2023).
- Recognition of Reviewers: reviewers who provide timely, thorough peer-review reports receive vouchers entitling them to a discount on the APC of their next publication in any MDPI journal, in appreciation of the work done.
Impact Factor:
2.6 (2022);
5-Year Impact Factor:
2.6 (2022)
Latest Articles
A Non-Arrhenius Model for Mechanism Consistency Checking in Accelerated Degradation Tests
Actuators 2023, 12(8), 319; https://doi.org/10.3390/act12080319 - 08 Aug 2023
Abstract
Degradation models are central to the lifetime prediction of electromagnetic relays. Coefficients of degradation models under accelerated degradation test (ADTs) can be obtained experimentally, and it is customary to map these coefficients back to those describing the actual degradation by the so-called Arrhenius
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Degradation models are central to the lifetime prediction of electromagnetic relays. Coefficients of degradation models under accelerated degradation test (ADTs) can be obtained experimentally, and it is customary to map these coefficients back to those describing the actual degradation by the so-called Arrhenius model. However, for some components, such as springs in electromagnetic relays, the Arrhenius model is only appropriate over a certain ADT temperature range, which implies inaccurate mapping outside that range. On this point, an error function model (EFM) is proposed to overcome the shortcomings of the Arrhenius model. EFM is derived from the average vibration energy of the crystal, which is further related to temperature alongside some constants. The empirical part of the paper compares the proposed EFM to the Arrhenius model for the ADT of 28-V–2-A electromagnetic relays. The results show that EFM is superior in describing the temperature characteristics of coefficients in the degradation model. Through mechanism consistency checking, EFM is also shown to be a better option than the Arrhenius model. Moving beyond the case of electromagnetic relays, EFM is thought to have better applicability in the degradation models of capacitors and rubbers.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Technologies on the Control Method of Electromagnetic Actuator)
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Energy Efficiency and Performance Evaluation of an Exterior-Rotor Brushless DC Motor and Drive System across the Full Operating Range
Actuators 2023, 12(8), 318; https://doi.org/10.3390/act12080318 - 06 Aug 2023
Abstract
In recent years, exterior-rotor brushless DC motors have become increasingly popular in robotics applications due to their compact shape and high torque density. However, these motors were originally used for continuous operation in drones. For applications such as exoskeletons, prostheses, or legged robots,
[...] Read more.
In recent years, exterior-rotor brushless DC motors have become increasingly popular in robotics applications due to their compact shape and high torque density. However, these motors were originally used for continuous operation in drones. For applications such as exoskeletons, prostheses, or legged robots, short bursts of high power are often required. Unfortunately, vendors do not typically provide data on the motors’ performance under these conditions. This paper presents experimental data on the torque–speed relationship, efficiency, and thermal responses of one of the most widely used outrunner-type brushless motors across its full operating range, including high-power short-duration operation. The results of this study can inform the selection and design of actuators for a range of robotics applications, particularly those that require high power output for brief periods of time.
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(This article belongs to the Section Actuators for Robotics)
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Mining Electric Shovel Working Device Configuration Synthesis and Performance Analysis
Actuators 2023, 12(8), 317; https://doi.org/10.3390/act12080317 - 05 Aug 2023
Abstract
Mining electric shovels (MES) are one of the key pieces of equipment for mining, and their comprehensive performance plays an important role in mining efficiency. Based on the screw theory, this paper proposes a comprehensive configuration method for an MES working device and
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Mining electric shovels (MES) are one of the key pieces of equipment for mining, and their comprehensive performance plays an important role in mining efficiency. Based on the screw theory, this paper proposes a comprehensive configuration method for an MES working device and selects a new mining electric shovel working device with a larger excavation range, taking the working device as an example for dimensional optimization and simulation analysis. Firstly, based on the closed-loop vector equation, the position inverse solution of the mechanism is analyzed, and the correctness of the position equation is verified by the simulation and by numerical solutions. Then, the constraints of the mechanism are analyzed, and the numerical method and the position equation are combined to solve for the workspace of the mechanism. The dimensional parameters of the mechanism are optimized by genetic algorithms. The workspace of the optimized working device is increased by 13.4789%. Finally, the mining results of the two MES, the working devices, are simulated and verified by experiment. It is shown that the experimental results are basically consistent with the simulation results. The excavation quality difference of the two working devices are 2.02% and 2.20%, which verifies the correctness of the kinematics equation of the working device and the feasibility of the new working device.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Innovative and Intelligent Actuation for Heavy-Duty Applications)
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Closed-Loop FES Control of a Hybrid Exoskeleton during Sit-to-Stand Exercises: Concept and First Evaluation
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, , , , , , , and
Actuators 2023, 12(8), 316; https://doi.org/10.3390/act12080316 - 05 Aug 2023
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Rehabilitation of paralysis caused by a stroke or a spinal cord injury remains a complex and time-consuming task. This work proposes a hybrid exoskeleton approach combining a traditional exoskeleton and functional electrical stimulation (FES) as a promising method in rehabilitation. However, hybrid exoskeletons
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Rehabilitation of paralysis caused by a stroke or a spinal cord injury remains a complex and time-consuming task. This work proposes a hybrid exoskeleton approach combining a traditional exoskeleton and functional electrical stimulation (FES) as a promising method in rehabilitation. However, hybrid exoskeletons with a closed-loop FES control strategy are functionally challenging to achieve and have not been reported often. Therefore, this study aimed to investigate a powered lower-limb exoskeleton with a closed-loop FES control for Sit-to-Stand (STS) movements. A body motion capture system was applied to record precise hip and knee trajectories of references for establishing the human model. A closed-loop control strategy with allocation factors is proposed featuring a two-layer cascaded proportional–integral–derivative (PID) controller for both FES and exoskeleton control. Experiments were performed on two participants to examine the feasibility of the hybrid exoskeleton and the closed-loop FES control. Both open- and closed-loop FES control showed the desired performance with a relatively low root-mean-squared error (max 1.3 in open-loop and max 4.1 in closed-loop) in hip and knee trajectories. Notably, the closed-loop FES control strategy can achieve the same performance with nearly 60% of the electrical power input compared to the open-loop control, which reduced muscle fatigue and improved robustness during the training. This study provides novel insights into body motion capture application and proposes a closed-loop FES control for hybrid exoskeletons.
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Optimal Design and Control Performance Evaluation of a Magnetorheological Fluid Brake Featuring a T-Shape Grooved Disc
Actuators 2023, 12(8), 315; https://doi.org/10.3390/act12080315 - 05 Aug 2023
Abstract
Magnetorheological fluid brakes are a promising technology for developing high-performance drive-by-wire braking systems due to their controllability and adaptability. This research aims to design an optimal magnetorheological fluid brake for motorcycles and their performance. The proposed model utilizes mathematical modeling and finite element
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Magnetorheological fluid brakes are a promising technology for developing high-performance drive-by-wire braking systems due to their controllability and adaptability. This research aims to design an optimal magnetorheological fluid brake for motorcycles and their performance. The proposed model utilizes mathematical modeling and finite element analysis using commercial software. Furthermore, the optimization of this MR brake is determined through multi-objective optimization with a genetic algorithm that maximizes braking torque while simultaneously minimizing weight and the cruising temperature. The novelty lies in the geometric shape of the disc, bobbin, and MR fluid channels, which results in a light MR brake weighing 6.1 kg, an operating temperature of 89.5 °C, and a power consumption of 51 W with an output braking torque of 303.9 Nm. Additionally, the control performance is evaluated using an extended Kalman filter controller. This controller effectively regulates braking torque, speed, and slip rate of both the rear and front wheels based on road characteristics and motorcycle dynamics. This study’s findings show that the front wheel necessitates higher braking torque compared to the rear wheel. Moreover, the slip rate is higher on the rear wheel than on the front wheel, but the front wheel stops earlier than the rear wheel.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Smart-Materials-Based Actuators—A Special Issue in Honor of Prof. Dr. Jaehwan Kim)
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Design and Experimental Study of Cavity Structure of Pneumatic Soft Actuator
Actuators 2023, 12(8), 314; https://doi.org/10.3390/act12080314 - 04 Aug 2023
Abstract
In order to study the influence of the cavity inclination angle bending performance of pneumatic soft actuators, two kinds of soft actuators were designed, one with a five-degree-angle cavity structure, and the other with a hybrid variable-degree-angle cavity structure. The bending performance of
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In order to study the influence of the cavity inclination angle bending performance of pneumatic soft actuators, two kinds of soft actuators were designed, one with a five-degree-angle cavity structure, and the other with a hybrid variable-degree-angle cavity structure. The bending performance of zero-degree-angle, five-degree-angle, and hybrid variable-degree-angle soft actuators was investigated by experimental methods and the ABAQUS finite element simulation method. The results show that, under seven different pressure loads, the mean absolute error between the experimental results and the numerical simulation results for the zero-degree-angle soft actuator was 0.926, for the five-degree-angle soft actuator it was 1.472, and for the hybrid variable-degree-angle soft actuator it was 1.22. When the pressure load changed from 4 kPa to 16 kPa, the five-degree-angle soft actuator had the largest range-of-angle variation, with the bending angle increasing 193.31%, from 26.92 degrees to 78.97 degrees. In the same longitudinal displacement, the five-degree-angle soft actuator had the largest lateral displacement variation, and the bending effect was the best compared with the zero-degree-angle soft actuator and the hybrid variable-degree-angle soft actuator. According to the experimental and numerical simulation results, with the same structural parameter design, the cavity tilt angle increases, which can increase the bending angle variation range and improve the bending performance of soft actuators.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Soft Actuators for Soft Robotics)
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A Novel Strain Wave Gear Reducer with Double Flexsplines
Actuators 2023, 12(8), 313; https://doi.org/10.3390/act12080313 - 01 Aug 2023
Abstract
Strain wave gear reducers, also known as harmonic drives, are widely used in industrial robots and collaborative robots. The zero-backlash feature is very important for these applications. However, this places extremely high demands on the machining accuracy of the strain wave gear reducer.
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Strain wave gear reducers, also known as harmonic drives, are widely used in industrial robots and collaborative robots. The zero-backlash feature is very important for these applications. However, this places extremely high demands on the machining accuracy of the strain wave gear reducer. Excessive manufacturing errors will lead to excessive backlash, affecting transmission accuracy or making installation difficult, and the flexible spline (or flexspline) is prone to wear, resulting in reduced accuracy with use. This study proposes a novel strain wave gear reducer with a double flexspline structure. The original “circular spline” which was rigid will be redesigned to be slightly flexible and deformable with an additional deformation adjustment structure, which reduces the requirements for machining accuracy, and realizes the same zero-backlash characteristic of traditional structure. The experimental results show that the new strain wave gear reducer has extremely low lost motion, hysteresis loss, and high torsional rigidity. The new strain wave gear reducer provides a more economical way to realize the zero-backlash reducer and helps to solve the problem of the accuracy decline of the strain wave gear reducer due to the wear of the flexspline.
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(This article belongs to the Section Actuators for Robotics)
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HBS-1.2: Lightweight Socially Assistive Robot with 6-Ply Twisted Coiled Polymer Muscle-Actuated Hand
by
, , , , , and
Actuators 2023, 12(8), 312; https://doi.org/10.3390/act12080312 - 01 Aug 2023
Abstract
In this paper, a new socially assistive robot (SARs) called HBS-1.2 is presented, which uses 6-ply twisted and coiled polymer (TCP) artificial muscles in its hand to perform physical tasks. The utilization of 6-ply TCP artificial muscles in a humanoid robot hand is
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In this paper, a new socially assistive robot (SARs) called HBS-1.2 is presented, which uses 6-ply twisted and coiled polymer (TCP) artificial muscles in its hand to perform physical tasks. The utilization of 6-ply TCP artificial muscles in a humanoid robot hand is a pioneering advancement, offering cost effective, lightweight, and compact solution for SARs. The robot is designed to provide safer human–robot interaction (HRI) while performing physical tasks. The paper explains the procedures for fabrication and testing of the 6-ply TCP artificial muscles, along with improving the actuation response by using a Proportional-Integral-Derivative (PID) control method. Notably, the robot successfully performed a vision-based pick and place experiment, showing its potential for use in homecare and other settings to assist patients who suffer from neurological diseases like Alzheimer’s disease. The study also found an optimal light intensity range between 34 to 108 lumens/m2, which ensures minimal variation in calculated distance with 95% confidence intervals for robust performance from the vison system. The findings of this study have important implications for the development of affordable and accessible robotic systems to support elderly patients with dementia, and future research should focus on further improving the use of TCP actuators in robotics.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Actuators in Assistive and Rehabilitation Robotics)
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Design and Optimization of Multifunctional Human Motion Rehabilitation Training Robot EEGO
Actuators 2023, 12(8), 311; https://doi.org/10.3390/act12080311 - 28 Jul 2023
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A multifunctional human motion rehabilitation training robot named EEGO (electric easy go) that could achieve four functions through structural transformation was designed. The four functions achieved by four working modes: the Supporting Posture Mode (SM), the Grasping Posture Mode (GM), the Riding Posture
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A multifunctional human motion rehabilitation training robot named EEGO (electric easy go) that could achieve four functions through structural transformation was designed. The four functions achieved by four working modes: the Supporting Posture Mode (SM), the Grasping Posture Mode (GM), the Riding Posture Mode (RM), and the Pet Mode (PM), which are suitable for patients in the middle and late stages of rehabilitation. The size of the equipment under different functions is determined by the height of different postures of the human. During the design process, the equipment was lightweight using size optimization methods, resulting in a 47.3% reduction in mass compared to the original design. Based on the Zero Moment Point (ZMP) stability principle, the stability mechanism of the robot was verified under the three different functions. According to the wanted function of the equipment, the control system of the equipment was designed. Finally, a prototype was prepared based on the analysis and design results for experimental verification, which can effectively assist patients in motion rehabilitation training such as gait, walking, and other movements.
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Force-Fighting Phenomena and Disturbance Rejection in Aircraft Dual-Redundant Electro-Mechanical Actuation Systems
Actuators 2023, 12(8), 310; https://doi.org/10.3390/act12080310 - 28 Jul 2023
Abstract
This paper presents a robust control system that addresses two key challenges in redundant actuators using Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motors (PMSM) for an aircraft nose wheel steering system: the elimination of force-fighting phenomena and the ability to respond effectively to unexpected disturbances. In
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This paper presents a robust control system that addresses two key challenges in redundant actuators using Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motors (PMSM) for an aircraft nose wheel steering system: the elimination of force-fighting phenomena and the ability to respond effectively to unexpected disturbances. In detail, a control method was devised to enhance the mitigation of force-fighting phenomena and disturbances by accurately observing and compensating for the torque-induced load applied to the PMSM. This was achieved through the utilization of a Q-filter-based Disturbance Observer (DOB). The proposed control approach was implemented and evaluated on a redundant system consisting of the PMSM and the nose wheel steering system. The performance of the proposed method was verified through extensive simulation studies. The simulation results confirmed the effectiveness and reliability of the method in accurately observing and responding to the force-fighting phenomenon that occurs in the redundant driving device. By subjecting the system to various scenarios and disturbances, the simulation provided a comprehensive evaluation of the proposed method’s ability to handle force-fighting phenomena. The results demonstrated that the method successfully observed and responded to the force-fighting phenomenon, thereby mitigating its adverse effects on the system’s performance. Therefore, these outcomes serve as empirical evidence supporting the validity and efficiency of the proposed method in addressing the force-fighting phenomenon encountered in the redundant driving device. These findings substantiate the effectiveness of the proposed approach and its potential for practical implementation in real-world systems.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Electromagnetic Actuators)
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Design, Control, and Assessment of a Synergy-Based Exosuit for Patients with Gait-Associated Pathologies
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, , , , and
Actuators 2023, 12(8), 309; https://doi.org/10.3390/act12080309 - 28 Jul 2023
Abstract
With ever-rising population comes a corresponding rise in people with mobility issues who have difficulty handling tasks in their daily lives. Such persons could benefit significantly from an active movement assistance device. This paper presents the design of a lower-limb exosuit designed to
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With ever-rising population comes a corresponding rise in people with mobility issues who have difficulty handling tasks in their daily lives. Such persons could benefit significantly from an active movement assistance device. This paper presents the design of a lower-limb exosuit designed to provide the wearer with useful gait assistance. While exoskeletons have existed for a while, soft exoskeletons or exosuits are relatively new. One challenge in the design of a gait-assistance device is the reduction of device weight. In order to facilitate this, the concept of kinematic synergies is implemented to reduce the number of actuators. In this prototype, the exosuit can actuate the hip, ankle, and knee of both legs using just one single motor, and a transmission system consisting of gears and clutches. The implementation of these synergies and their advantages are detailed in this paper, as well as preliminary tests to assess performance. This was performed by testing the exosuit worn by a subject on a treadmill while taking EMG readings and measuring cable tension produced. Significant reductions by up to 35% in certain muscle activations were observed, demonstrating the validity of this prototype for gait assistance.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Actuation Solutions for Wearable Robots)
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Dynamic Performance of a Magnetic Energy-Harvesting Suspension: Analysis and Experimental Verification
Actuators 2023, 12(8), 308; https://doi.org/10.3390/act12080308 - 27 Jul 2023
Abstract
The advantages of the proposed novel magnetic energy-harvesting suspension (MEHS) are high safety, compact structure and convenient maintenance, compared with the previous studies. However, the force generated by the energy harvester with harvesting energy can affect the motion of the mechanical system. Therefore,
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The advantages of the proposed novel magnetic energy-harvesting suspension (MEHS) are high safety, compact structure and convenient maintenance, compared with the previous studies. However, the force generated by the energy harvester with harvesting energy can affect the motion of the mechanical system. Therefore, this paper aims to analyze the ride comfort and road handling of the MEHS, and investigates the dynamic performance of the MEHS. Firstly, the structure and the working principle of the MEHS are illustrated and introduced, and the dynamic mechanism of the quarter-vehicle with the MEHS is revealed and investigated. Secondly, the effects of the electromechanical coupling coefficient and external load resistance on the dynamic performance are investigated by numerical calculation. An experimental setup is established to verify the dynamic performance of the proposed MEHS. According to the experimental results, the dynamic performance of the suspension is contradictory with the increase of the external load resistance at the periodic frequency 7 Hz. And compared with the passive suspension, the dynamic performance of the MEHS is changed at various excitations, in which the sprung displacement and relative dynamic load of the tire of MEHS at the periodic frequency 3.3 Hz are reduced by 39.45% and 41.18%, respectively. Overall, the external load resistance of the proposed MEHS can be utilized to realize the variable damping of the suspension system and reduce the effect of vibration on the suspension system at the resonance frequency. And the dynamic performance has been verified in the laboratory, which lays the foundation for the dynamic analysis in a real vehicle.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Vibration Control Using Electromagnetic Actuators)
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The Impact Modeling and Experimental Verification of a Launch Vehicle with Crushing-Type Landing Gear
Actuators 2023, 12(8), 307; https://doi.org/10.3390/act12080307 - 26 Jul 2023
Abstract
In order to investigate the landing process of a vertical landing reusable vehicle, a dynamic model with a complex nonlinear dissipative element is established based on the discrete impulse step approach, which includes a three-dimensional multi-impact model considering friction and material compliance, and
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In order to investigate the landing process of a vertical landing reusable vehicle, a dynamic model with a complex nonlinear dissipative element is established based on the discrete impulse step approach, which includes a three-dimensional multi-impact model considering friction and material compliance, and a multistage aluminum honeycomb theoretical model. The normal two-stiffness spring model is adopted in the foot–ground impact model, two motion patterns (stick and slip) are considered on the tangential plane and the structural changes caused by buffering behavior are included, and the energy conversion during the impact follows the law of conservation of energy. The state transition method is used to solve the dynamic stability convergence problem of the vehicle under the coupling effect of impact and buffering deformation in the primary impulse space. Landing experiments on a scaled physical reusable vehicle prototype are conducted to demonstrate that the theoretical results exhibit good agreement with the experimental data.
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(This article belongs to the Section Aircraft Actuators)
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Research on Positioning Control Strategy for a Hydraulic Support Pushing System Based on Iterative Learning
Actuators 2023, 12(8), 306; https://doi.org/10.3390/act12080306 - 26 Jul 2023
Abstract
At present, the positioning control of the hydraulic support pushing systems in fully mechanized mining faces uses an electrohydraulic directional valve as the control component, while the current research mainly focuses on servo valves, proportional valves, high−speed on−off valves, and electromagnetic directional valves.
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At present, the positioning control of the hydraulic support pushing systems in fully mechanized mining faces uses an electrohydraulic directional valve as the control component, while the current research mainly focuses on servo valves, proportional valves, high−speed on−off valves, and electromagnetic directional valves. At present, the positioning control for electrohydraulic directional valves is only a simple logical control. Therefore, in order to improve the positioning control accuracy of the hydraulic support pushing system, a predictive positioning control strategy based on iterative learning was designed. Firstly, mathematical modeling of the hydraulic support pulling process was carried out, and its state−space equation was established. Secondly, an iterative learning controller with a state observer was designed, in which the iterative learning method was used to predict the control advance in the positioning process, and the state observer was used to estimate the parameters that could not be measured by the system, so as to improve the control accuracy in the broaching process. Then, a SimulationX–Simulink joint simulation model of the position control system of a multi−cylinder pulling hydraulic support was built, and the designed iterative learning controller was compared with the BP neural network controller. Finally, a test platform for the hydraulic support pushing system was built, and the proposed control strategy was experimentally verified. The research results show that the iterative learning control strategy proposed for the electrohydraulic directional valve not only simplifies the design process of the controller but also has higher positioning control accuracy. The single−cylinder positioning control accuracy can be controlled within 10 mm, and the multi−cylinder coordinated positioning control accuracy can be controlled within 15 mm, which meets the accuracy requirements of the site.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Innovative and Intelligent Actuation for Heavy-Duty Applications)
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Impedance Force Control of Manipulator Based on Variable Universe Fuzzy Control
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and
Actuators 2023, 12(8), 305; https://doi.org/10.3390/act12080305 - 25 Jul 2023
Abstract
Impedance control is a classic and straightforward control method that finds wide applications in various fields. However, traditional constant impedance control requires prior knowledge of the environment’s stiffness and position information. If the environmental information is unknown, constant impedance control is not capable
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Impedance control is a classic and straightforward control method that finds wide applications in various fields. However, traditional constant impedance control requires prior knowledge of the environment’s stiffness and position information. If the environmental information is unknown, constant impedance control is not capable of handling the task. To address this, this paper proposes a variable universe fuzzy model reference adaptive impedance control method that achieves effective force tracking even in the presence of unknown environmental information. A variable universe fuzzy controller was employed to determine the impedance parameters. The force tracking error and its rate of change were used as two input parameters for the variable universe fuzzy controller, which utilizes fuzzy inference to obtain the incremental values of the impedance parameters. For the introduced model reference controller, a novel adaptive law was employed to obtain the coefficients for contact force and torque. Subsequently, the contact force of the manipulator in Cartesian space was taken as the research object, and a simulation model of a six-joint manipulator was established in MATLAB/Simulink. By comparing it with the constant impedance control method, the feasibility and effectiveness of this control approach were validated.
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(This article belongs to the Section Control Systems)
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Constrained Motion Control of an Independent Metering System with Uncertain Loads
Actuators 2023, 12(8), 304; https://doi.org/10.3390/act12080304 - 25 Jul 2023
Abstract
Independent metering systems (IMSs) have been applied and researched in mobile machinery due to their advantages of reduced throttling energy losses and remarkable advances under negative load through decoupling actuator throttling control. Although IMSs have the control flexibility to deal with negative workloads,
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Independent metering systems (IMSs) have been applied and researched in mobile machinery due to their advantages of reduced throttling energy losses and remarkable advances under negative load through decoupling actuator throttling control. Although IMSs have the control flexibility to deal with negative workloads, the control performance of the IMSs is challenged by uncertain loads in mobile operations, limiting the control accuracy. In addition, if the motion reference is improperly specified and exceeds the constraints, the pressure of the actuator may oscillate significantly and potentially result in control instability. In this study, a constrained adaptive robust control strategy is proposed for an IMS. An adaptive robust control strategy is designed for the meter-in and meter-out throttling to achieve precision motion control despite the nonlinearities and uncertainties of the electro-hydraulic IMS. The value of the uncertain workload is estimated in real-time and utilized in the model-based controller to improve control accuracy. In addition, a constrained trajectory planning approach is presented to handle out-of-constraint references and ensure motion tracking performance. This effectively prevents pressure fluctuations caused by the inappropriate reference.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Innovative and Intelligent Actuation for Heavy-Duty Applications)
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Evaluation and Comparison of SEA Torque Controllers in a Unified Framework
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, , , and
Actuators 2023, 12(8), 303; https://doi.org/10.3390/act12080303 - 25 Jul 2023
Abstract
Series elastic actuators (SEA) with their inherent compliance offer a safe torque source for robots that are interacting with various environments, including humans. These applications have high requirements for the SEA torque controllers, both in the torque response as well as interaction behavior
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Series elastic actuators (SEA) with their inherent compliance offer a safe torque source for robots that are interacting with various environments, including humans. These applications have high requirements for the SEA torque controllers, both in the torque response as well as interaction behavior with its environment. To differentiate state of the art torque controllers, this work introduces a unifying theoretical and experimental framework that compares controllers based on their torque transfer behavior, their apparent impedance behavior, and especially the passivity of the apparent impedance (i.e., their interaction stability) as well as their sensitivity to sensor noise. We compare classical SEA control approaches such as cascaded PID controllers and full state feedback controllers with advanced controllers using disturbance observers, acceleration feedback and adaptation rules. Simulations and experiments demonstrate the trade-off between stable interactions, high bandwidths and low noise levels. Based on these trade-offs, an application-specific controller can be designed and tuned, based on desired interaction with the respective environment.
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(This article belongs to the Section Actuators for Robotics)
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Augmented Reality Based Distant Maintenance Approach
Actuators 2023, 12(7), 302; https://doi.org/10.3390/act12070302 - 24 Jul 2023
Abstract
This paper focuses on the implementation of Industry 4.0-based maintenance approaches using AR technology. The primary objective is to highlight the benefits of AR in maintenance and provide a framework for implementing AR-based maintenance systems. AR can assist maintenance personnel in performing maintenance
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This paper focuses on the implementation of Industry 4.0-based maintenance approaches using AR technology. The primary objective is to highlight the benefits of AR in maintenance and provide a framework for implementing AR-based maintenance systems. AR can assist maintenance personnel in performing maintenance tasks more efficiently by providing real-time instructions and information. By overlaying virtual information on real equipment, AR can guide maintenance personnel through maintenance procedures, reducing human errors and improving the quality of the work. AR can also provide remote assistance to maintenance personnel, allowing experts to remotely guide less experienced personnel through complex maintenance procedures. The proposed application provides motorcycle service assistance using AR and telepresence technologies. It enables remote monitoring of the service flow and performs an automated identification of parts. The system provides instructions for disassembling more complex mechanical components, provides a 3D model of the object, and enables ordering of the necessary parts.
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(This article belongs to the Section Actuators for Manufacturing Systems)
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Research on CNN-LSTM Brake Pad Wear Condition Monitoring Based on GTO Multi-Objective Optimization
Actuators 2023, 12(7), 301; https://doi.org/10.3390/act12070301 - 24 Jul 2023
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As the core component of the automobile braking system, brake pads have a complex structure and high failure rate. Their accurate and effective state monitoring can help to evaluate the safety performance of brake pads and avoid accidents caused by brake failure. The
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As the core component of the automobile braking system, brake pads have a complex structure and high failure rate. Their accurate and effective state monitoring can help to evaluate the safety performance of brake pads and avoid accidents caused by brake failure. The wear process of automobile brake pads is a gradual, nonlinear, and non-stationary time-varying system, and it is difficult to extract its features. Therefore, this paper proposes a CNN-LSTM brake pad wear state monitoring method. This method uses a Convolutional Neural Network (CNN) to complete the deep mining of brake pad wear characteristics and realize data dimensionality reduction, and a Long Short-Term Memory (LSTM) network to capture the time dependence of the brake pad wear sequence, so as to construct the nonlinear mapping relationship between brake pad wear characteristics and brake pad wear values. At the same time, the artificial Gorilla Troops Optimization (GTO) algorithm is used to perform multi-objective optimization of the network structure parameters in the CNN-LSTM model, and its powerful global search ability improves the monitoring effect of the brake pad wear status. The results show that the CNN-LSTM model based on GTO multi-objective optimization can effectively monitor the wear state of brake pads, and its coefficient of determination R2 value is 0.9944, the root mean square error RMSE value is 0.0023, and the mean absolute error MAE value is 0.0017. Compared with the BP model, CNN model, LSTM model, and CNN-LSTM model, the value of the coefficient of determination R2 is the closest to 1, which is increased by 8.29%, 5.52%, 4.47%, 3.30%, respectively, which can more effectively realize the monitoring and intelligent early warning of the brake pad wear state.
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Open AccessArticle
An Optimized Design of the Soft Bellow Actuator Based on the Box–Behnken Response Surface Design
Actuators 2023, 12(7), 300; https://doi.org/10.3390/act12070300 - 24 Jul 2023
Abstract
Soft actuator technology is extensively utilized in robotic manipulation applications. However, several existing designs of soft actuators suffer from drawbacks such as a complex casting process, a multi-air chamber configuration, and insufficient grasping force. In this study, we propose a novel soft bellow
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Soft actuator technology is extensively utilized in robotic manipulation applications. However, several existing designs of soft actuators suffer from drawbacks such as a complex casting process, a multi-air chamber configuration, and insufficient grasping force. In this study, we propose a novel soft bellow design featuring a single air chamber, which simplifies the fabrication process of the actual model. To enhance the performance of the proposed design, we employ the Box–Behnken response surface design to generate a design matrix for implementing different levels of design factors in the finite element model. The FEA response is then subjected to an analysis of variance to identify significant factors and establish a regression model for deformation and stress response prediction. Among the considered responses, the wall thickness emerges as the most influential factor, followed by the divided ratio of radians and the number of bellows. Validation of the optimized soft bellow actuator’s deformation response is performed through comparison with experimental data. Moreover, the soft bellow actuator is capable of exerting a pulling force of 8.16 N when used in conjunction with a simple gripper structure design, enabling effective object manipulation. Additionally, the soft bellow design boasts cost-effectiveness and easy moldability, facilitating seamless integration with different gripper frames for diverse applications. Its simplicity and versatility make it a promising choice for various robotic manipulation tasks.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Soft Actuators and Robotics)
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